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「新刊速遞」《國際安全》(IS), Vol.46, No.3, 2022 | 國政學人

2022-03-16由 國政學人 發表于 歷史

「新刊速遞」《國際安全》(IS), Vol.46, No.3, 2022 | 國政學人

期刊簡介

「新刊速遞」《國際安全》(IS), Vol.46, No.3, 2022 | 國政學人

《國際安全》(International Security)是國際關係和國際安全研究領域的頂級期刊,成立於1976年,由哈佛大學貝爾弗科學與國際事務中心(Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs)資助,麻省理工學院出版社出版。據期刊引證報告(Journal Citation Reports)統計,其影響因子(impact factor)一直高居國際關係領域前五。2019年,該刊在國際關係領域排名第一。

本期目錄

1. 預測與判斷:為什麼人工智慧增加了人類在戰爭中的重要性

Prediction and Judgment: Why Artificial Intelligence Increases the Importance of Humans in War

2. 保衛美國:重新審視針對朝鮮的國家導彈防禦系統

Defending the United States: Revisiting National Missile Defense against North Korea

3. 起義軍:勝利後的軍事服從和國家組織

Insurgent Armies: Military Obedience and State Formation after Rebel Victory

4. 評估中美意外的核升級

Assessing China-U。S。 Inadvertent Nuclear Escalation

5. 永別了,武器?選舉結果與內戰後的持久和平

A Farewell to Arms? Election Results and Lasting Peace after Civil War

01

預測與判斷:為什麼人工智慧增加了人類在戰爭中的重要性

題目:

Prediction and Judgment: Why Artificial Intelligence Increases the Importance of Humans in War

作者:

Avi Goldfarb, (羅特曼人工智慧和醫療保健講座教授,多倫多大學教授,國家經濟研究局助理研究員),Jon R。 Lindsay(佐治亞理工學院網路安全與隱私學院副教授,山姆納恩國際事務學院副院長)

摘要:

最近關於

人工智慧(AI)和國際安全

的學術研究集中在用機器取代人類戰士的政治和倫理後果上。然而,人工智慧並不是人類決策的簡單替代品。商業機器學習的進步降低了統計預測的成本,同時也增加了資料(使預測成為可能)和判斷(決定預測為何重要)的價值。但是,在不確定和衝突的戰爭中,這些關鍵的補充可能不存在高質量的資料和明確的判斷,或在相同程度上不存在。

這有兩個重要的戰略意義。第一,

採用人工智慧的軍事組織往往會變得更加複雜,以適應各種決策任務中資料和判斷的挑戰。

第二,

在戰略競爭中,資料和判斷往往會成為有吸引力的目標。因此,涉及人工智慧互補的衝突可能會與人工智慧替代的願景截然不同。與快速的機器人戰爭和軍事力量的決定性轉變不同,人工智慧的衝突可能會涉及重大的不確定性、組織摩擦和長期的爭議。

因此,軍事上對人工智慧的更大依賴將使人類因素在戰爭中變得更重要,而不是更不重要。

Recent scholarship on artificial intelligence (AI) and international security focuses on the political and ethical consequences of replacing human warriors with machines。 Yet AI is not a simple substitute for human decision-making。 The advances in commercial machine learning that are reducing the costs of statistical prediction are simultaneously increasing the value of data (which enable prediction) and judgment (which determines why prediction matters)。 But these key complements—quality data and clear judgment—may not be present, or present to the same degree, in the uncertain and conflictual business of war。 This has two important strategic implications。 First, military organizations that adopt AI will tend to become more complex to accommodate the challenges of data and judgment across a variety of decision-making tasks。 Second, data and judgment will tend to become attractive targets in strategic competition。 As a result, conflicts involving AI complements are likely to unfold very differently than visions of AI substitution would suggest。 Rather than rapid robotic wars and decisive shifts in military power, AI-enabled conflict will likely involve significant uncertainty, organizational friction, and chronic controversy。 Greater military reliance on AI will therefore make the human element in war even more important, not less。

02

保衛美國:重新審視針對朝鮮的國家導彈防禦系統

題目:

Defending the United States: Revisiting National Missile Defense against North Korea

作者:

Jaganath Sankaran(德克薩斯大學奧斯汀分校約翰遜公共事務學院助理教授), Steve Fetter(馬里蘭大學公共政策學院的教授)

摘要:

朝鮮在試圖獲得

戰略核威懾

方面取得了重大進展。2017年,它測試了洲際彈道導彈(ICBMs),並完成了一系列核試驗爆炸。這些可能為朝鮮部署能夠打擊美國的搭載核彈頭的洲際彈道導彈提供技術基礎。陸基中段防禦(GMD)導彈防禦系統的目的是威懾朝鮮的核脅迫,如果威懾失敗,可以挫敗朝鮮的有限攻擊。然而,儘管經過了二十年的努力和昂貴的代價,GMD系統仍然未經證實和不可靠。它還沒有表現出有能力擊敗朝鮮可以採取的相對簡單和廉價的對抗措施。20世紀90年代出於政治動機匆忙部署,GMD系統遭受了持續的延遲、大量的成本增加和反覆的計劃失敗。但是,

GMD和美國其他導彈防禦系統的努力引起了俄羅斯和中國的嚴重關切,他們擔心這可能威脅到他們的核威懾力量。

外交和威懾可以在限制朝鮮核計劃的同時安撫俄羅斯和中國。另一種機載助推級攔截系統可能提供有意義的防禦朝鮮導彈,而不會威脅到俄羅斯或中國的威懾力量。

North Korea has made significant strides in its attempt to acquire a strategic nuclear deterrent。 In 2017, it tested intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and completed a series of nuclear test explosions。 These may provide North Korea with the technical foundation to deploy a nuclear-armed ICBM capable of striking the United States。 The Ground-based Midcourse Defense (GMD) missile defense system is intended to deter North Korean nuclear coercion and, if deterrence fails, to defeat a limited North Korean attack。 Despite two decades of dedicated and costly efforts, however, the GMD system remains unproven and unreliable。 It has not demonstrated an ability to defeat the relatively simple and inexpensive countermeasures that North Korea can field。 The GMD system has suffered persistent delays, substantial cost increases, and repeated program failures because of the politically motivated rush to deploy in the 1990s。 But GMD and other U。S。 missile defense efforts have provoked serious concerns in Russia and China, who fear it may threaten their nuclear deterrents。 Diplomacy and deterrence may reassure Russia and China while constraining North Korea‘s nuclear program。 An alternate airborne boost-phase intercept system may offer meaningful defense against North Korean missiles without threatening the Russian or Chinese deterrents。

03

起義軍:勝利後的軍事服從和國家組織

題目:

Insurgent Armies: Military Obedience and State Formation after Rebel Victory

作者:

Philip A。 Martin(喬治梅森大學政策與政府學院國際安全助理教授)

摘要:

為什麼一些取得勝利的叛軍組織在內戰後建立了順從而有效的國家軍隊,而另一些組織卻遭遇了軍事叛變?在內戰期間,獲勝的反政府武裝面臨著嚴重的安全威脅,在戰爭到和平的過渡期間,反政府武裝的戰地指揮官更有可能保持服從。強烈的安全威脅促使武裝分子建立更具包容性的領導結構,從而降低了戰場指揮官在戰後時期叛變的動機。強烈的安全威脅也降低了指揮官在戰後抵抗的能力,因為這迫使叛亂分子保持機動,並縮短了在叛亂分子控制地區的時間,從而降低了戰地指揮官發展地方關係和獨立支援基地的可能性。用一份1946年以來獲勝的反叛組織的新名單來檢驗這一論點的合理性。辛巴威和象牙海岸的兩個案例研究探討了該理論的因果機制。該研究有助於討論內戰中軍事勝利的後果、戰後武裝組織的發展軌跡,以及脆弱國家軍民團結的必要條件。

Why do some winning rebel groups build obedient and effective state militaries after civil war, while others suffer military defections? When winning rebels face intense security threats during civil wars, rebel field commanders are more likely to remain obedient during war-to-peace transitions。 Intense security threats incentivize militants to create more inclusive leadership structures, reducing field commanders’ incentives to defect in the postwar period。 Intense security threats also reduce commanders’ capacity for postwar resistance by forcing insurgents to remain mobile and adopt shorter time horizons in rebel-governed territory, reducing the likelihood that field commanders will develop local ties and independent support bases。 The plausibility of the argument is examined using a new list of winning rebel groups since 1946。 Two case studies—Zimbabwe and Côte d’Ivoire—probe the causal mechanisms of the theory。 The study contributes to debates about the consequences of military victory in civil war, the postwar trajectories of armed groups, and the conditions necessary for civil-military cohesion in fragile states。

04

評估中美意外的核升級

題目:

Assessing China-U。S。 Inadvertent Nuclear Escalation

作者:

吳日強(中國人民大學國際關係學院副教授)

摘要:

China-U。S。 inadvertent escalation has been a focus of recent international relations literature。 The current debate, however, has not paid sufficient attention to two important factors: the survivability of China‘s nuclear forces under unintentional conventional attacks; and China’s nuclear command, control, and communication (NC3) system。 Based on detailed analysis of these two variables, three potential mechanisms of China-U。S。 inadvertent escalation are examined: use-it-or-lose-it, unauthorized/accidental, and damage-limitation。 Although the possibility of a major China-U。S。 conventional war inadvertently escalating to a nuclear level cannot be excluded, the risk is extremely low。 China‘s nuclear forces would survive U。S。 inadvertent conventional attacks and, thus, are unlikely to be significantly undermined。 Even though China’s NC3 system might be degraded during a conventional war with the United States, Chinese leadership would likely maintain minimum emergency communications with its nuclear forces。 Moreover, China‘s NC3 system is highly centralized, and it prioritizes “negative control,” which can help to prevent escalation。 China’s nuclear retaliatory capability, although limited, could impede U。S。 damage-limitation strikes to some extent。 To keep the risk of inadvertent escalation low, both sides must take appropriate precautions and exercise self-restraint in their planning and operations。

05

永別了,武器?選舉結果與內戰後的持久和平

題目:

A Farewell to Arms? Election Results and Lasting Peace after Civil War

作者:

Sarah Zukerman Daly(哥倫比亞大學政治學助理教授)

摘要:

為什麼在一些國內衝突之後戰爭會再次發生,而在其他衝突之後和平會鞏固?未經檢驗的傳統觀點認為,戰後選舉缺乏保障措施對和平是危險的,

因為選舉失敗者將拒絕接受選舉結果,並重新軍事化。

關於戰後選舉結果的新的跨國資料和關於重新軍事化的交戰級資料都表明了這一觀點。公民傾向於選擇和平,因為他們參與了安全投票;他們選擇他們認為最能保障國家安全的政黨,用戰爭的結果作為指導他們安全投票的啟發式。

研究結果表明,如果戰後軍事力量平衡出現反轉,戰爭敗者在選舉中表現不佳,那麼重新爆發戰爭的可能性就會增加。

相反,如果相對軍事實力保持穩定,或者公民準確地更新了他們對戰後權力平衡的理解,內戰參與者在選舉失敗後就不太可能重新軍事化。瞭解這些好戰的選舉參與者在何時以及如何選擇維持或破壞和平,有助於就如何利用民主的好處,同時降低其風險展開重要的理論和政策辯論。

Why does fighting recur after some civil conflicts, whereas peace consolidates following others? The untested conventional wisdom is that—absent safeguards—postwar elections are dangerous for peace because electoral losers will reject the election results and remilitarize。 New cross-national data on postwar election results and belligerent-level data on remilitarization contest this view。 Citizens tend to elect peace because they engage in “security voting”; they elect the party that they deem best able to secure the state, using the war outcome as the heuristic that guides their security vote。 Findings indicate that the chance of renewed war increases if there is an inversion in the military balance of power after war, and the war-loser performs poorly in the elections。 If, instead, relative military power remains stable, or citizens accurately update their understandings of the postwar power balance, a civil war actor is unlikely to remilitarize if it loses the election。 Knowing when and how these belligerent electoral actors choose to either sustain or break the peace informs important theoretical and policy debates on how to harness democracy‘s benefits while mitigating its risks。

編譯 | 丁偉航

排版 | 屈媛媛 王佳怡

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「新刊速遞」《國際安全》(IS), Vol.46, No.3, 2022 | 國政學人

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